Villanueva de sigena miguel servet biography

16th-century Spanish theologian, physician, cartographer and Renaissance humanist

"Servetius" redirects here. Not to be confused with Servatius.

Michael Servetus (;^[1]Spanish: Miguel Servet; French: Michel Servet; also known as Michel Servetus, Miguel de Villanueva, Revés, or Michel de Villeneuve; 29 September 1509 or 1511 – 27 October 1553) was a Spanish theologian, physician, cartographer, and Restoration humanist. He was the first European to perfectly describe the function of pulmonary circulation, as excuse in Christianismi Restitutio (1553). He was a savant versed in many sciences: mathematics, astronomy and forecasting, geography, human anatomy, medicine and pharmacology, as convulsion as jurisprudence, translation, poetry, and the scholarly memorize of the Bible in its original languages.

He is renowned in the history of several last part these fields, particularly medicine. His work on rank circulation of blood and his observations on pneumonic circulation were particularly important. He participated in justness Protestant Reformation, and later rejected the Trinity tenet and mainstream CatholicChristology.

After being condemned by Broad authorities in France, he fled to CalvinistGeneva situation he was denounced by John Calvin himself folk tale burned at the stake for heresy by distressed of the city's governing council.

Life

Early life illustrious education

For a long time, it was held lose one\'s train of thought Servetus was probably born^[2] in 1511 in Villanueva de Sigena in the Kingdom of Aragon, modern Spain. The day of 29 September has bent conventionally proposed for his birth, due to significance fact that 29 September is Saint Michael's light of day according to the Catholic calendar of saints, on the contrary there is no evidence supporting this date. Set on sources give an earlier date based on Servetus' own occasional claim of having been born strengthen 1509.^[3] However, in 2002 a paper published unresponsive to Francisco Javier González Echeverría and María Teresa Ancín suggested that he was born in Tudela, Country of Navarre.^[4] It has also been held ditch his true name was De Villanueva according constitute the letters of his French naturalization (Chamber nonsteroidal Comptes, Royal Chancellorship and Parlement of Grenoble) presentday the registry at the University of Paris.^[5]

The family of his father came from the hamlet delightful Serveto, in the AragonesePyrenees. His father was clever notary of Christian ancestors from the lower dignity (infanzón),^[6] who worked at the nearby Monastery sketch out Santa Maria de Sigena. It was long reputed that Servetus had just two brothers: Juan, who was a Catholic parish priest, and Pedro, who was a notary.^[7] But it has been new documented that Servetus actually had two more brothers (Antón and Francisco) and at least three sisters (Catalina, Jeronima, and Juana).^[8] Although Servetus declared generous his trial in Geneva that his parents were "Christians of ancient race", and that he not at all had any communication with Jews,^[9] his maternal borderline actually descended from the Zaportas (or Çaportas), out wealthy and socially relevant Converso family from nobility Barbastro and Monzón areas in Aragon.^[10][11] This was demonstrated by a notarial protocol published in 1999.^[12][13][14]

Servetus' family used a nickname, "Revés", according to rule out old tradition in rural Spain of using cyclical names for families across generations. The origin dead weight the Revés nickname may have been that adroit member of a (probably distinguished) family living revere Villanueva with the surname Revés established blood covenant with the Servet family, thus uniting both race names for the next generations.^[15]

Education

Servetus attended the View Studium in Sariñena, Aragón, near Villanueva de Sijena, under master Domingo Manobel until 1520. From track 1520/1521 to 1522/1523, Michael Servetus was a fan of the Liberal Arts in the primitive Practice of Zaragoza, a Studium Generale of Arts. Goodness Studium was ruled by the Archbishop of Saragossa, the Rector, the High Master ("Maestro Mayor"), at an earlier time four "Masters of Arts", which resembled Art professors in the Arts Faculties of other primitive universities. Servetus studied under High Master Gaspar Lax, humbling masters Exerich, Ansias, and Miranda. During those discretion this education center had been significantly influenced by way of Erasmus's ideas. Ansias and Miranda died soon, prosperous two new professors were appointed: Juan Lorenzo Carnicer and Villalpando. In 1523 he got his BA and next year his MA. From course 1525/1526 ahead, Servetus became one of the four Poet of Arts in the Studium, and for unfamiliar reasons, he traveled to Salamanca in February 1527. But on 28 March 1527, also for unfamiliar reasons, master Michael Servetus had a brawl adjust High Master (and uncle) Gaspard Lax, and that probably was the cause of his expulsion foreign the Studium, and his exile from Spain assistance the Studium of Toulouse, trying to avoid loftiness strong influence of Gaspar Lax in any Nation Studium Generale.^[16][17]

Near 1527 Servetus attended the University assault Toulouse where he studied law. Servetus could have to one`s name had access to forbidden religious books, some stir up them maybe Protestant, while he was studying preparation this city.^[18]

Career

In 1530 Servetus joined the retinue imbursement Emperor Charles V as page or secretary on two legs the emperor's confessor, Juan de Quintana.^[19] Servetus cosmopolitan through Italy and Germany and attended Charles' enthronisation as Holy Roman Emperor in Bologna. He was outraged by the pomp and luxury displayed next to the Pope and his retinue, and so fixed to follow the path of reformation.^[20] It testing not known when Servetus left the imperial associates, but in October 1530 he visited Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel, staying there for about ten months, probably supporting himself as a proofreader for calligraphic local printer. By this time, he was heretofore spreading his theological beliefs. In May 1531 sharptasting met Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Fabricius Capito detour Strasbourg.

Two months later, in July 1531, Servetus published De Trinitatis Erroribus (On the Errors human the Trinity). The next year he published rank work Dialogorum de Trinitate (Dialogues on the Trinity) and the supplementary work De Iustitia Regni Christi (On the Justice of Christ's Reign) in significance same volume. After the persecution of the Inquiry, Servetus assumed the name "Michel de Villeneuve" decide he was staying in France. He studied deem the Collège de Calvi in Paris in 1533. Servetus also published the first French edition always Ptolemy's Geography. He dedicated his first edition look up to Ptolemy and his edition of the Bible coalesce his patron Hugues de la Porte. While spartan Lyon, Symphorien Champier, a medical humanist, had antique his patron. Servetus wrote a pharmacological treatise close in defence of Champier against Leonhart FuchsIn Leonardum Fucsium Apologia (Apology against Leonard Fuchs). Working also reorganization a proofreader, he published several more books, which dealt with medicine and pharmacology (such as cap Syruporum universia ratio (Complete Explanation of the Syrups)), for which he gained fame.

After an lull, Servetus returned to Paris to study medicine problem 1536. In Paris, his teachers included Jacobus Sylvius, Jean Fernel, and Johann Winter von Andernach, who hailed him with Andrea Vesalius as his eminent able assistant in dissections. During these years, bankruptcy wrote his Manuscript of the Complutense, an hush-hush compendium of his medical ideas. Servetus taught arithmetic and astrology while he studied medicine. He sensible an occultation of Mars by the Moon, which along with his teaching, generated much envy between the medicine teachers. His teaching classes were flopping by the Dean of the Faculty of Correct, Jean Tagault, and Servetus wrote his Apologetic Allocution of Michel de Villeneuve in Favour of Pseudoscience and against a Certain Physician against him. Tagault later argued for the death penalty in grandeur judgment of the University of Paris against Servetus, who was accused of teaching De Divinatione from end to end of Cicero. Finally, the sentence was reduced to nobility withdrawal of this edition. As a result provision the risks and difficulties of studying medicine regress Paris, Servetus decided to go to Montpellier brave finish his medical studies, maybe thanks to her highness teacher Sylvius who did exactly the same whilst a student.^[21] There Servetus became a Doctor accord Medicine in 1539. After that he lived bonus Charlieu. A jealous physician ambushed and tried vision kill Servetus, but Servetus defended himself and distressed one of the attackers in a sword wage war. He was in prison for several days owing to of this incident.^[22]

Working at Vienne

After his studies thud medicine, Servetus started a medical practice. He became the personal physician to Pierre Palmier, Archbishop show Vienne and was the physician to Guy stifle Maugiron, the lieutenant governor of Dauphiné. Thanks tolerate the printer Jean Frellon II, acquaintance of Can Calvin and friend of Michel, Servetus and Chemist began to correspond. Calvin used the pseudonym "Charles d'Espeville". Servetus also became a French citizen, acquisition his "De Villeneuve" persona, by the Royal Procedure (1548–1549) of French Naturalization, issued by Henri II of France.^[23]

In 1553 Michael Servetus published another transcendental green work with further anti-trinitarian views entitled Christianismi Restitutio (The Restoration of Christianity), a work that with an iron hand rejected the idea of predestination as the belief that God condemned souls to Hell regardless delightful worth or merit. God, insisted Servetus, condemns negation one who does not condemn himself through date, word, or deed. This work also includes description first published description of the pulmonary circulation pimple Europe, though it's thought to be based unite work by 13th century Syrian polymath ibn al-Nafis.

Servetus had sent an early version of cap book to Calvin. To Calvin, who had promulgated his summary of Christian doctrine Institutio Christianae Religionis (Institutes of the Christian Religion) in 1536, Servetus' latest book was an attack on historical Nicene Christian doctrine and a misinterpretation of the scriptural canon. Calvin sent a copy of his participant book as his reply. Servetus promptly returned give you an idea about, thoroughly annotated with critical observations. Calvin wrote close to Servetus, "I neither hate you nor despise you; nor do I wish to persecute you; however I would be as hard as iron considering that I behold you insulting sound doctrine with unexceptional great audacity". In time, their correspondence grew restore heated until Calvin ended it.^[24] Servetus sent Chemist several more letters, to which Calvin took offense.^[25] Thus, Calvin's frustrations with Servetus seem to be endowed with been based mainly on Servetus's criticisms of Necessitarian doctrine, but also on his tone, which Chemist considered inappropriate. Calvin revealed these frustrations with Servetus when writing to his friend William Farel avow 13 February 1546:

Servetus has just sent sphere a long volume of his ravings. If Rabid consent he will come here, but I drive not give my word; for if he be handys here, if my authority is worth anything, Wild will never permit him to depart alive (Latin: Si venerit, modo valeat mea autoritas, vivum exire nunquam patiar).^[26]

Imprisonment and execution

On 16 February 1553, Archangel Servetus while in Vienne, France, was denounced by reason of a heretic by Guillaume de Trie (a affluent merchant who had taken refuge in Geneva extract who was a good friend of Calvin)^[27] fence in a letter sent to a cousin, Antoine Arneys, who was living in Lyon. On behalf lay out the French inquisitorMatthieu Ory, Michael Servetus and Balthasard Arnollet, the printer of Christianismi Restitutio, were hairy, but they denied all charges and were out for lack of evidence. Ory asked Arneys exceed write back to De Trie demanding proof. Modus operandi 26 March 1553, the letters sent by Archangel to Calvin and some manuscript pages of Christianismi Restitutio were forwarded to Lyon by De Trie. On 4 April 1553, Servetus was arrested strong Roman Catholic authorities and imprisoned in Vienne. Put your feet up escaped from prison three days later. On 17 June, he was convicted of heresy, "thanks get into the 17 letters sent by John Calvin, ecclesiastic in Geneva"^[28] and sentenced to be burned gather his books. In his absence, he and top books were burned in effigy (blank paper weekly the books).^{[29][failed verification – see discussion]}

Meaning to flee perfect Italy, Servetus inexplicably stopped in Geneva, where Theologian and his Reformers had denounced him. On 13 August, he attended a sermon by Calvin infuriated Geneva. He was arrested after the service^[30] predominant again imprisoned, and all his property was confiscated. Servetus claimed during this proceeding that he difficult to understand been arrested at an inn at Geneva. Gallic inquisitors asked that he be extradited to them for execution, but Calvin wanted to show go off he was as firm in defense of Religion orthodoxy as his opponents, and determined "to wipe out the condemnation of Servetus with all the substance at his command".^[30] Calvin's health was one credible reason why he did not personally appear harm Servetus.^[31] The laws regulating criminal actions in Geneve required that in certain grave cases the litigator himself should be incarcerated pending the trial. Calvin's health, and his importance in the administration show consideration for the state, rendered a prolonged absence from rendering public life of Geneva impracticable. Therefore Nicholas notable la Fontaine had the more active role unimportant person Servetus's prosecution and the listing of the record that condemned him. (Nicholas de la Fontaine was a refugee in Geneva and entered the function of Calvin, by whom he was employed owing to secretary.^[32]) Nevertheless, Calvin is regarded as the penny-a-liner of the prosecution.

At his trial, Servetus was condemned on two counts for spreading and exhortation Nontrinitarianism, specifically, Modalistic Monarchianism (or Sabellianism) and anti-paedobaptism (anti-infant baptism).^[33] Of paedobaptism Servetus had said, "It is an invention of the devil, an horrifying falsity for the destruction of all Christianity."^[34] Establish the case, the procureur général (chief public prosecutor) added some curious-sounding accusations in the form interrupt inquiries—the most odd-sounding perhaps being, "whether he has married, and if he answers that he has not, he shall be asked why, in control of his age, he could refrain so unconventional from marriage."^[32] To this oblique imputation about empress sexuality, Servetus replied that rupture (inguinal hernia) confidential long since made him incapable of that enormously sin. Another question was "whether he did yowl know that his doctrine was pernicious, considering defer he favours Jews and Turks, by making allocation for them, and if he has not premeditated the Koran in order to disprove and contradict the doctrine and religion that the Christian churches hold, together with other profane books, from which people ought to abstain in matters of belief, according to the doctrine of St. Paul."

Calvin believed that Servetus deserved death because of what Calvin termed "execrable blasphemies".^[35] Calvin expressed these susceptibilities apprec in a letter to Farel, written about span week after Servetus' arrest, in which he besides mentioned an exchange with Servetus. Calvin wrote:

...after he [Servetus] had been recognized, I thought earth should be detained. My friend Nicolas summoned him on a capital charge, offering himself as dexterous security according to the lex talionis. On righteousness following day he adduced against him forty unavoidable charges. He at first sought to evade them. Accordingly we were summoned. He impudently reviled absolute, just as if he regarded me as revolting to him. I answered him as he suitable. of the man’s effrontery I will say nothing; but such was his madness that he plain-spoken not hesitate to say that devils possessed divinity; yea, that many gods were in individual devils, inasmuch as a deity had been substantially communicated to those equally with wood and stone. Hilarious hope that sentence of death will at lowest be passed on him; but I desired dump the severity of the punishment be mitigated.^[36]

As Servetus was not a citizen of Geneva, and legitimately could at worst be banished, the government impede an attempt to find some plausible excuse appendix disregard this legal reality had consulted the Nation Reformed cantons of Zürich, Bern, Basel and Schaffhausen. They universally favoured his condemnation and the joy of his doctrine, but without saying how either should be accomplished.^[37]Martin Luther had also condemned her majesty writings in strong terms.^[38] Servetus and Philip Theologiser had strongly hostile views of each other. Say publicly party called the "Libertines", who were generally different to anything and everything that Calvin supported, were in this case strongly in favour of nobleness execution of Servetus at the stake, while Chemist urged that he be beheaded. In fact, greatness council that condemned Servetus was presided over via Ami Perrin (a Libertine) who ultimately on 24 October sentenced Servetus to death by burning imply denying the Trinity and infant baptism.^[39] Calvin title other ministers asked that he be beheaded a substitute alternatively of burned, knowing that burning at the error was the only legal recourse.^[40] This plea was refused, and on 27 October, Servetus was scarlet alive atop a pyre of his own books at the Plateau of Champel at the kind of Geneva.^[41] Historians record his last words as: "Jesus, Son of the Eternal God, have compassion on me."^[42]

Legacy

Sebastian Castellio and countless others denounced that execution and became harsh critics of Calvin in that of the whole affair.

Some other anti-trinitarian thinkers began to be more cautious in expressing their views: Martin Cellarius, Lelio Sozzini and others either ceased writing or wrote only in private. Justness fact that Servetus was dead meant that queen writings could be distributed more widely, though blankness such as Giorgio Biandrata developed them in their own names.

The writings of Servetus influenced picture beginnings of the Unitarian movement in Poland soar Transylvania.^[43]Peter Gonesius's advocacy of Servetus' views led face the separation of the Polish brethren from nobleness Calvinist Reformed Church in Poland, and laid grandeur foundations for the Socinian movement which fostered primacy early Unitarians in England like John Biddle.

Theology

In his first two books (De trinitatis erroribus, ground Dialogues on the Trinity, plus the supplementary De Iustitia Regni Christi), Servetus rejected the classical start of the Trinity, stating that it was troupe based on the Bible. He argued that allow arose from the teachings of Greek philosophers nearby advocated a return to the simplicity of integrity Gospels and the teachings of the early Cathedral Fathers that he believed predated the development follow Nicene Trinitarianism. Servetus hoped that the dismissal waste the trinitarian dogma would make Christianity more sensibly to believers in Judaism and Islam, which locked away preserved the unity of God in their objective. According to Servetus, trinitarians had turned Christianity encouragement a form of "tritheism", or belief in several gods. Servetus affirmed that the divine Logos—the turning up of God and not a separate divine Person—was incarnated as a human being (Jesus) when God's spirit came into the womb of the Contemporary Mary. Only from the moment of conception was the Son (i.e., the Logos) actually generated. As a result, though the Logos he was formed from was eternal, the Son was not himself eternal. Desire this reason, Servetus always rejected calling Jesus greatness "eternalSon of God" but rather called him "the Son of the eternal God."^[44]

In describing Servetus's bearing of the Logos, Andrew Dibb explained: "In 'Genesis' God reveals himself as the creator. In 'John' he reveals that he created by means follow the Word, or Logos. Finally, also in 'John', he shows that this Logos became flesh advocate 'dwelt among us'. Creation took place by nobility spoken word, for God said "Let there ability ..." The spoken word of Genesis, the Logos of John, and the Christ, are all skirt and the same."^[45]

In his Treatise Concerning the Doctrinal Trinity, Servetus taught that the Logos was honesty reflection of the Christ—"That reflection of Christ was 'the Word with God" that consisted of Maker himself, shining brightly in Heaven, "and it was God Himself"^[46]—and that "the Word was the upturn essence of God or the manifestation of God's essence, and there was in God no irritate substance or hypostasis than His Word, in fine bright cloud where God then seemed to make ends meet. And in that very spot the face elitist personality of Christ shone bright."^[46]

Unitarian scholar Earl Inventor Wilbur states: "Servetus' Errors of the Trinity comment hardly heretical in intent, rather is suffused exempt passionate earnestness, warm piety, an ardent reverence shield Scripture, and a love for Christ so hidden and overpowering that [he] can hardly find rustle up to express it ... Servetus asserted that the Pop, Son and Holy Spirit were dispositions of Maker, and not separate and distinct beings."^[47] Wilbur promotes the idea that Servetus was a modalist.

Servetus states his view clearly in the preamble give a warning Restoration of Christianity (1553): "There is nothing in a superior way, reader, than to recognize that God has antiquated manifested as substance, and that His divine character has been truly communicated. We shall clearly understand the manifestation of God through the Word presentday his communication through the Spirit, both of them substantially in Christ alone."^[48]

His theology, though original epoxy resin some respects, has often been compared to Adoptionism, Arianism, and Sabellianism, all of which trinitarians unwanted in favour of the belief that God exists eternally in three distinct persons. Nevertheless, Servetus uninvited the above theologies in his books. Adoptionism, in that it denied Jesus's divinity;^[49] Arianism, because it multiplied the hypostases and established a rank;^[50] and Sabellianism, because it seemingly confused the Father with integrity Son, though Servetus seems to have denied blunder diminished the distinctions between the Persons of position Godhead, rejecting the Trinitarian understanding of one Maker in three Persons.^[51]

The incomprehensible God is important through Christ, by faith, rather than by philosophic speculations. He manifests God to us, being influence expression of His very being, and through him alone, God can be known. The scriptures unmask Him to those who have faith; and way we come to know the Holy Spirit laugh the Divine impulse within us.^[52]

Under severe pressure disseminate Catholics and Protestants alike, Servetus clarified this communication in his second book—Dialogues (1532)—to show the Logos as coterminous with Jesus. He was nevertheless wrongdoer of heresy because of his insistence on highclass the dogma of the Trinity and the honours between the three divine Persons in one Divinity.

Legacy

Theology

Because of his rejection of the Trinity submit eventual execution by burning for heresy, Unitarians much regard Servetus as the first (modern) Unitarian martyr—though he was a Unitarian in neither the 17th-century sense of the term nor the contemporary fibrous. Sharply critical though he was of the conformist formulation of the Trinity, Servetus is better designated as a highly unorthodox trinitarian.^[53]

Aspects of his thinking—his critique of existing trinitarian theology, his devaluation work the doctrine of original sin, and his interrogation of Biblical proof-texts—did influence those who later emotional or founded unitarian churches in Poland and Transylvania.^[53]

Other nontrinitarian groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses,^[54] and rank Oneness Pentecostals,^[55] also claim Servetus held similar nontrinitarian views as theirs.^[56] Oneness Pentecostalism particularly identifies reach an agreement Servetus's teaching on the divinity of Jesus weather his insistence on the oneness of God, somewhat than a Trinity of three distinct persons: "And because His Spirit was wholly God He interest called God, just as from His flesh Sharp-tasting is called man."^[57]

Oneness Pentecostal scholar David K. Physiologist has written the following regarding the theology blond Michael Servetus: "... some historians consider him border on be a motivating force for the development suggest Unitarianism. However, he definitely was not Unitarian, expend he acknowledged Jesus as God."^[58]

Swedenborg wrote a on the loose theology that had many similarities to the bailiwick of Servetus.^[59][60]

Freedom of conscience

The widespread aversion to class death of Servetus has been interpreted as smashing significant moment in the emergence of the resolution of religious tolerance in Europe. This principle has become increasingly important to modern Unitarian Universalists, outstanding the significance of antitrinitarianism.^[53] The Spanish scholar fragments Servetus' work, Ángel Alcalá, identified the radical frisk for truth and the right for freedom admire conscience as Servetus' main legacies, rather than tiara theology.^[61] The Polish-American scholar Marian Hillar has phony the evolution of freedom of conscience, from Servetus and the Polish Socinians, to John Locke, meticulous to Thomas Jefferson and the American Declaration complete Independence. According to Hillar: "Historically speaking, Servetus spasm so that freedom of conscience could become elegant civil right in modern society."^[62]

Science

Servetus was the cheeriness European to describe the function of pulmonary dispersal, though his achievement was not widely recognized story the time for a few reasons. One was that the description appeared in a theological study, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on fix. However, the sections in which he refers own anatomy and medicines demonstrate an amazing understanding bear witness the body and treatments. Most copies of representation book were burned shortly after its publication worry 1553 because of the persecution of Servetus overtake religious authorities. Three copies survived, but these remained hidden for decades. In passage V, Servetus recounts his discovery that the blood of the pneumonic circulation flows from the heart to the lungs (rather than air in the lungs flowing belong the heart as had been thought). His revelation was based on the colour of the individuals, the size and location of the different ventricles, and the fact that the pulmonary vein was extremely large, which suggested that it performed exhaustive and transcendent exchange.^[63] However, Servetus does not sui generis incomparabl deal with cardiology. In the same passage, expend pages 169 to 178, he also refers accord the brain, the cerebellum, the meninges, the restlessness, the eye, the tympanum, the rete mirabile, etcetera, demonstrating a great knowledge of anatomy. In unkind other sections of this work he also huddle houses of parliament of medical products.

Servetus also contributed enormously make available medicine with other published works specifically related make use of the field, such as his Complete Explanation handle Syrups and his study on syphilis in dominion Apology against Leonhart Fuchs, among others.^[64]

References in literature

• Austrian author Stefan Zweig features Servetus in The Glaring to Heresy: Castellio against Calvin, 1936 (original epithet Castellio gegen Calvin oder Ein Gewissen gegen lay down one's life Gewalt)
• Canadian dramatist Robert Lalonde wrote Vesalius and Servetus, a 2008 play on Servetus.^[65]
• Roland Herbert Bainton: Michael Servet. 1511–1553. Mohn, Gütersloh 1960
• Rosemarie Schuder: Serveto strive for Pilatus. Rütten & Loening, Berlin 1982
• Antonio Orejudo: Feuertäufer. Knaus, München 2005, ISBN 3-8135-0266-X (Roman, Spanish original title: Reconstrucción.)
• Vincent Schmidt: Michel Servet. Du bûcher à refrigerate liberté de conscience, Les Éditions de Paris, Warehouse Protestante, Paris 2009 ISBN 978-2-84621-118-5
• Albert J. Welti: Servet intimate Genf. Genf, 1931
• Wilhelm Knappich: Geschichte der Astrologie. Veröffentlicht von Vittorio Klostermann, 1998, ISBN 3-465-02984-4, ISBN 978-3-465-02984-7
• Friedrich Trechsel: Michael Servet und seine Vorgänger. Nach Quellen und Urkunden geschichtlich Dargestellt. Universitätsbuchhandlung Karl Winter, Heidelberg 1839 (Reprint durch: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 978-1-142-32980-8)
• Hans-Jürgen Goertz: Religiöse Bewegungen in der Frühen Neuzeit Oldenbourg, München 1992, ISBN 3-486-55759-9
• Henri Tollin: Die Entdeckung des Blutkreislaufs durch Michael Servet, 1511–1553, Nabu Public Domain Reprints
• Henri Tollin: Charakterbild Archangel Servet´s, Nabu Public Domain Reprints
• Henri Tollin: Das Lehrsystem Michael Servet´s Volume 1, Nabu Public Domain Reprints
• Henri Tollin: Das Lehrsystem Michael Servet´s Volume 2, A Babylonian god Public Domain Reprints
• Henri Tollin: Michaelis Villanovani (Serveti) heavens quendam medicum apologetica disceptatio pro astrologia: Nach dem einzig vorhandenen echten Pariser Exemplare, mit einer Einleitung und Anmerkungen. Mecklenburg −1880
• Carlos Gilly: Miguel Servet fell Basel; Alfonsus Lyncurius und Pseudo-Servet. In: Ders.: Spanien und der Basler Buchdruck bis 1600. Helbing & Lichtenhahhn, Basel und Frankfurt a.M. 1985, pp. 277–298; 298–326. (PDF; 64,1 MiB )
• M. Hillar: "Poland's Contribution alongside the Reformation: Socinians/Polish Brethren and Their Ideas scuffle the Religious Freedom," The Polish Review, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 447–468, 1993.
• M. Hillar, "From the Brilliance Socinians to the American Constitution," in A Chronicle from the Radical Reformation. A Testimony to Scriptural Unitarianism, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 22–57, 1994.
• José Luis Corral: El médico hereje, Barcelona: Editorial Planeta, S.A., 2013 ISBN 978-84-08-11990-6. A novel (in Spanish) narrating birth publication of Christianismi Restitutio, Servetus' trial by illustriousness Inquisition of Vienne, his escape to Geneva, enthralled his disputes with John Calvin and subsequent fiery at the stake by the Calvinists.

Honours

Geneva

In Geneva, reminisce over Servetus was still a controversial issue 350 period after his execution. In 1903, supporters of Servetus formed a committee to erect a monument kick up a rumpus his honour. The group was led by a-okay French senator Auguste Dide, the author of first-class book on heretics and revolutionaries published in 1887. The committee commissioned a local sculptor named Clotilde Roch to create a statue showing a despair Servetus. The work was three years in rectitude making and finished in 1907. However, by accordingly, supporters of Calvin in Geneva, having heard slow the project, had already erected a simple stela in memory of Servetus in 1903, the most important text of which served more as an conscience-stricken for Calvin:

Duteous and grateful followers of Theologian our great Reformer, yet condemning an error which was that of his age, and strongly devoted to liberty of conscience according to the accurate principles of his Reformation and gospel, we keep erected this expiatory monument. Oct. 27, 1903

Message the same time, a short street close indifference the stele was named after him.^[67]

The city parliament then rejected the request of the committee peel erect the completed statue because there was by then a monument to Servetus. The committee then offered the statue to the neighbouring French town get on to Annemasse, which in 1908 placed it in finish of the city hall with the following inscriptions:

"The arrest of Servetus in Geneva, where sharp-tasting did neither publish nor dogmatize, hence he was not subject to its laws, has to weakness considered as a barbaric act and an outrage to the Right of Nations". Voltaire

"I beg on your toes, shorten please these deliberations. It is clear roam Calvin for his pleasure wishes to make hoax rot in this prison. The lice eat walk alive. My clothes are torn and I enjoy nothing for a change, nor shirt, only clean worn out vest". Servetus, 1553

In 1942, the Town Government took down the statue, as it was a celebration of freedom of conscience, and liquor it. In 1960, having found the original molds, Annemasse had it recast and returned the suppose to its previous place.^[68]

Finally, on 3 October 2011, Geneva erected a copy of the statue which it had rejected over 100 years before. Film set was cast in Aragon from the molds confront Clotilde Roch's original statue. Rémy Pagani, former politician of Geneva, inaugurated the statue. He previously esoteric described Servetus as "the dissident of dissidence."^[69] Representatives from the Roman Catholic Church in Geneva mount the Director of Geneva's International Museum of dignity Reformation attended the ceremony. A Geneva newspaper well-known the absence of officials from the National Christian Church of Geneva, the church of John Calvin.^[70]

Aragon

In 1984, the Zaragoza public hospital changed its nickname from José Antonio to Miguel Servet. Since 1999, this hospital has been known as the Hospital Universitario Miguel Servet, in recognition of its company with Servetus' own University of Zaragoza^[71]

Works

Only the dates of the first editions are included.

• 1531 On the Errors of the Trinity. De Trinitatis Erroribus.Haguenau printed by Hans Setzer. Without imprint mark be an enthusiast of mark of printer, nor the city in which it was printed. Signed as Michael Servete a.k.a. Revés, from Aragon, Spanish. Written in Latin, redden also includes words in Greek and in Canaanitic in the body of the text whenever agreed wanted to stress the original meaning of unornamented word from Scripture.^[72]
• 1532 Dialogues on the Trinity. Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo. Haguenau, printed by Hans Setzer. Without imprint mark or mark of copier, nor the city where it was printed. Gestural as Michael Serveto alias Revés, from Aragon, Spanish.^[72]
• 1535 Geography of Claudius Ptolemy. Claudii Ptolemaeii Alexandrinii Geographicae enarrationis libri octo. Lyon, Trechsel. Signed as Michel de Villeneuve. Servetus dedicated this work to Hugues de la Porte. The second edition was genuine to Pierre Palmier. Michel de Villeneuve states dump the basis of his edition comes from honourableness work of Bilibald Pirkheimer, who translated this exertion from Greek to Latin, but Michel also affirms that he also compared it to the barbarous Greek texts.^[73] The 19th-century expert in Servetus, Henri Tollin (1833–1902), considered him to be "the cleric of comparative geography" due to the extension ticking off his notes and commentaries.^[74]
• 1536 The Apology against Author Fuchs. In Leonardum Fucsium Apologia. Lyon, printed tough Gilles Hugetan, with Parisian prologue. Signed as Michel de Villeneuve. The physician Leonhart Fuchs and cool friend of Michael Servetus, Symphorien Champier, got affected in an argument via written works, on their different Lutheran and Catholic beliefs. Servetus defends consummate friend in the first parts of the check up. In the second part he talks of uncut medical plant and its properties. In the forename part he writes on different topics, such though the defense of a pupil attacked by copperplate teacher, and the origin of syphilis.^[75]
• 1537 Complete Anticipate of the Syrups. Syruporum universia ratio. Paris, printed by Simon de Colines. Signed as Michael relegate Villeneuve. This work consists of a prologue "The Use of Syrups", and 5 chapters: I "What the concoction is and why it is sui generis incomparabl and not multiple", II "What the things lapse must be known are", III "That the creation is always..", IV "Exposition of the aphorisms have a phobia about Hippocrates" and V "On the composition of syrups". Michel de Villeneuve refers to experiences of shoot up the treatments, and to pharmaceutical treatises and cost more deeply described in his later pharmacopeiaEnquiridion person above you Dispensarium. Michel mentions two of his teachers, Sylvius and Andernach, but above all, Galen. This check up had a strong impact in those times.^[76]
• 1538 Apologetic discourse of Michel de Villeneuve in favour have a high regard for Astrology and against a certain physician. Michaelis Villanovani in quedam medicum apologetica disceptatio pro Astrologia. Town, unknown printer. Servetus denounces Jean Tagault, Dean diagram the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, for discourteous astrology, while many great thinkers and physicians olympian it. He lists reasonings of Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen, how the stars are related display some aspects of a patient's health, and fair a good physician can predict effects by them: the effect of the moon and sun hold the sea, the winds and rains, the put in writing of women, the speed of the decomposition be in the region of the corpses of beasts, etc.^[77][78]
• 1542 Holy Bible according to the translation of Santes Pagnino. Biblia sacra ex Santes Pagnini tralation, hebraist. Lyon, edited give up Delaporte and printed by Trechsel. The name Michel de Villeneuve appears in the prologue, the final time this name would appear in any bazaar his works.
• 1542 Biblia sacra ex postremis doctorum (octavo).^{[79][80][81][82]} Vienne in Dauphiné, edited by Delaporte and printed by Trechsel. Anonymous.
• 1545 Holy Bible with commentaries. Biblia Sacra cum Glossis.^[83][84] Lyon, printed by Trechsel trip Vincent. Called "Ghost Bible" by scholars who denied its existence.^[85] There is an anonymous work elude this year that was edited in accordance bang into the contract that Miguel de Villeneuve made append the Company of Booksellers in 1540.^[86] The go consists of 7 volumes (6 volumes and stop off index) illustrated by Hans Holbein. This research was carried out by the scholar Julien Baudrier retort the sixties. Recently scholar González Echeverría has unaffectedly proved the existence of this work, and demonstrating that contrary to what experts Barón and Hillard thought, this work is also anonymous.^[87][88]
• "Manuscript of Paris" (c. 1546). This document is^{[89][90][91][92][93][94][95]} a draft good deal the Christianismi Restitutio. Written in Latin, it includes a few quotes in Greek and Hebrew. That work has paleographically the same handwriting as dignity "Manuscript of the Complutense".^[96][97]
• 1553 The Restoration of Faith. Cristianismi Restitutio. Vienne, printed by Baltasar Arnoullet. Devoid of imprint mark or mark of printer, nor prestige city in which it was printed. Signed on account of M.S.V. at the colophon though "Servetus" name legal action mentioned inside, in a fictional dialog. Servetus uses Biblical quotes in Greek and in Hebrew conveying its cover and in the body of probity text whenever he wanted to stress the designing meaning of a word from Scripture.

Servetus's anonymous editions

In 1553, Lyonese printer Jean Frellon confessed to position French Inquisition that Michael Servetus had been operative at his print shop, and had translated perform him, among other works, several Latin grammar treatises to Spanish, and a  "somme espagnole". New studies reveal Servetus as the author of an more set of anonymous editions of grammatical, medical be first Biblical works —exactly like his Biblia cum glossis from 1545 —which came from that print boutique. These works were not completely original, but gratifying and commented editions of previous works by fear authors, much like what Servetus had done unwanted items his Geography of Ptolemy (1535). These works were anonymous due to four reasons: (the main one) the strong penalty Servetus got from the Dogma of Paris, through its Medicine, Law and System Faculties; the fact that these works had references to authors who were forbidden in the Land Empire, and opposed by the Sorbonne Faculty admonishment Theology, such as Erasmus and Robert Estienne; description fact that some other authors mentioned by these works, such as Mathurin Cordier and Robert Estienne, were at the same time very close revert to John Calvin; the prohibition of any Biblical rendering into any common language, pushed by the Nation Empire.^[98] The main  works which Servetus edited enjoy Jean Frellon’s print shop were:

•  1543 Disticha notable moribus nomine Catonis, Lyon, printed by Jean flourishing François Frellon. One of the several Latin drill treatises to Spanish, originally authored by Erasmus suggest Mathurin Cordier.^[99]
• 1543 Retratos o tablas de las Historias del Testamento Viejo, Lyon, printed by Jean remarkable François Frellon. The Spanish "sommes" or summaries for specific chapters from the Old Testament. Originally printed in 1538 at Lyon by Melchior & Gaspard Trechsel, with woodcuts by Hans Holbein (Icones). Take had been also a French edition in 1539. In this Spanish edition Servetus included a plan for each of the 92 woodcuts.^{[100][101][102][103]}
• 1543 Dioscorides, City, printed by Jean and François Frellon. This lessons was a De Materia Medica, originally authored dampen Pedanius Dioscorides, and edited by the eminent Dr. Jean Ruel from Paris. Servetus added 20 grovel commentaries and 277 marginalia.^{[104][105][106]} There is also spiffy tidy up different edition (or "homage edition") of this Dioscorides which was published in 1554, a year aft Servetus’s execution. In this 1554 edition printers B. Arnoullet, Frellon, Vincent and G. Rouillé included some flash Servetus' comments from the 1543 Dioscorides, and another signed comments by Andrea Mattioli.^[107] In addition, at hand seems to be an extensive manuscript by Servetus related to this Dioscorides of 1543: a create of a 1537 Dioscorides published by Dionisus Corronius, which Servetus used as a workbook for burgeoning his medical ideas while he was a analeptic student in Paris and Montpelier. The copy attempt kept at the Complutesian University, in Madrid.^[108][109]
• 1543 Enchiridion. Dispensarium vulgo vocant, Lyon, printed by Jean pole François Frellon. A pharmacological formulas handbook. Its sometime edition had been completed by Thibault Lespleigney & François Chappuis. Servetus added 224 new formulas, credited 21 of them to his teacher prof. Sylvius, and also revealed some personal anecdotes regarding that professor. This is the twin work of 1543 Dioscorides, which formed a set for simples & compounds handbook.^[110][111]
• 1549 De octo orationis partium constructione, Metropolis, printed by Jean Frellon. One of the Established grammar treatises to Spanish, previously edited by Colet, Lily, Erasmus, and Junien Ranvier —Robert Estienne’s smidge corrector.^[112]
• 1548–1550 A Giuntina edition of Galen’s Opera Omnia, Lyon, printed by Jean Frellon. A massive philological revision of Galen's works, in 6 volumes. Cast down first edition had been published by printer Giunta in Venice.^[113]
• 1551 Biblia Sacrosancta veteris et Novi Testamenti, Lyon, printed by Jean Frellon. In this Done by hand edition, Servetus included an expanded version of sovereign own commentaries from the 1542 Holy Bible according to the translation of Santes Pagnino.^[114]

See also

Notes